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Fact Sheet

Poverty in California

By Sarah Bohn, Caroline Danielson, Sara Kimberlin, Patricia Malagon

With the end of many pandemic relief programs, poverty rates—especially for children—have gone up in the last two years.

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K–12 Education

Evaluating resources and policies that improve student outcomes

Report

Class Size Reduction, Teacher Quality, and Academic Achievement in California Public Elementary Schools

By Christopher Jepsen, Steven Rivkin

In 1996, California passed a statewide class size reduction (CSR) law that aimed to reduce average class sizes in kindergarten through third grade by roughly one-third. Educators and policymakers expected CSR to lead to large gains in student achievement. However, increasing the state's teaching workforce by thousands of new teachers had the potential to offset the direct benefits of smaller classes, particularly for schools in economically disadvantaged communities that already had staffing difficulties.,

In 1996, California passed a statewide class size reduction (CSR) law that aimed to reduce average class sizes by roughly one-third in kindergarten through third grade. Educators and policymakers expected CSR to lead to large gains in student achievement. However, increasing the state’s teaching workforce by thousands of new teachers had the potential to offset the direct benefits of smaller classes, particularly for schools in economically disadvantaged communities that already had staffing difficulties. This report addresses the following questions:

  • What were the effects of CSR on overall teacher experience, certification, and education? Were some schools affected more than others?
  • How did CSR affect student achievement? What were the benefits of smaller classes? What were the effects of new teachers?
  • Are the benefits of smaller classes concentrated among a subset of students, or did all schools benefit equally from CSR?

The authors found that a ten-student reduction in class size raises the percentage of third-grade students who exceed national median test scores by roughly 4 percentage points in mathematics and 3 percentage points in reading. However, having a new teacher reduces the percentage of students who exceed national median test scores by roughly 3 percentage points in both mathematics and reading.

CSR led to a dramatic increase in the percentage of teachers who lacked full certification, who had no postgraduate education, and who were in their first or second year of teaching. These teachers were concentrated in schools with high percentages of nonwhite students enrolled in subsidized lunch programs.

Report

Examining the Reach of Targeted School Funding

By Julien Lafortune, Joseph Herrera, Niu Gao

Under California’s ten-year-old funding formula, districts with higher shares of high-need students receive additional dollars on top of base funding. Districts have flexibility around spending these funds, but when money is not fully directed to the intended students and schools, the impact on achievement gaps is diluted.

Report

Equitable State Funding for School Facilities

By Julien Lafortune, Niu Gao

Most funding for California’s K–12 facilities comes from local tax revenues, which depend on property wealth. State funding could potentially address wealth disparities, but it has disproportionately benefited more-affluent districts. Policymakers should prioritize equity in facility funding so that all students have access to safe and effective learning environments.

blog post

How Prevalent Is Policing in California Schools?

By Andrew Lee, Joseph Hayes

Across California, two-thirds of high school students, a quarter of middle-schoolers, and about one in ten elementary-grade students attend schools that use school resource officers (SROs), sworn police officers with the legal authority to make arrests.

Report

Low-Income Students and School Meal Programs in California

By Caroline Danielson

School nutrition programs help improve nutrition among vulnerable children. In so doing, they help build a better future for these children and the state. Now that California is implementing the Local Control Funding Formula (LCFF), there is additional reason to make sure all students who are eligible for free or low-cost meals enroll in these programs. Along with English Learners and foster youth, low-income students—in other words, students who are eligible for free and reduced-price meals—are targeted for additional funds under the LCFF. This renewed focus on enrollment could also prompt further consideration of participation in school nutrition programs.

This report looks at factors that might be linked to variations in student enrollment and participation in free or reduced-price meals. Not surprisingly, we find that districts with higher poverty rates identify higher levels of eligibility than wealthier districts. Low-income high school students appear to be enrolled at levels comparable to younger students, but students in elementary school districts are much more likely to participate in lunch programs than students in other types of districts. We also find that schools in districts with higher shares of foreign-born residents have modestly lower participation levels (but not identification of low-income students). Finally, we find evidence that schools with smaller enrollments are more successful than larger schools at identifying and serving low-income students.

One way to further the goal of full enrollment among low-income students is to cut the large share of low-income students who must submit applications for free or reduced-price meals. Achieving this objective is arguably an important part of a larger state effort to integrate social safety net programs and services.

Report

Upgrading Technology Infrastructure in California’s Schools

By Patrick Murphy, Niu Gao

As California schools move into online testing and online learning, an adequate technology infrastructure is no longer an option, but a necessity. To fully benefit from digital learning, schools will require a comprehensive technology infrastructure that can support a range of administrative and instructional tools. An earlier PPIC report found that most schools need significant technology upgrades in order to accommodate online learning. What upgrades do schools need most, and how much will they cost? How can policymakers help ensure that all students have access to 21st-century learning tools?

This report describes findings based on new statewide data. First, schools need high-density wireless networks, increased bandwidth, and overall network infrastructure upgrades. The challenges are greater in large schools, mostly because of the high cost of wireless networks for large groups of users. Second, IT staffing continues to be an issue in most schools. Only a third of schools have staff onsite to support desktop and local network configuration.

To estimate the costs of upgrading technology infrastructure, we created two scenarios. Our baseline scenario—which includes minimum bandwidth for digital learning, one device for every two middle- and high-school students, and one IT staffer for every 300 computing devices—would cost an additional $1.5 billion over the next three years. Our target scenario—which involves additional bandwidth and one device to every middle- and high-school student—would cost significantly more: $3.8 billion. In either scenario, staffing costs are more than 60 percent of the total.

As the state explores ways to address these ongoing technology needs, we offer several recommendations. First, continue and maintain sustained funding for technology investment, particularly for staffing. Second, provide targeted technical assistance to address severe staffing problems. Third, to ensure that all students have full access to digital learning, take advantage of federal funding and explore innovative partnerships with private sector to cover the cost of home broadband access for students from lower-income families.

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